Osage Nation, Oklahoma, TYPE of RECORD: History of the Osage Contributed for use in USGenWeb Archives by: Sharon Hamilton sharkay@swbell.net ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- USGENWEB ARCHIVES NOTICE: These electronic pages may NOT be reproduced in any format for profit or presentation by any other organization or persons. Persons or organizations desiring to use this material, must obtain the written consent of the contributor, or the legal representative of the submitter, and contact the listed USGenWeb archivist with proof of this consent. The submitter has given permission to the USGenWeb Archives to store the file permanently for free access. http://www.usgwarchives.net/ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Tribal oral tradition tells about a migration from the banks of the Ohio River. 200 years before discovery of oil: The Osage lived in 5 permanent villages along the tributaries of Missouri River in southwestern Missouri. 1673: Father Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet explored southward from Canada and claimed all land of the Mississippi Valley for France. A few years later, French explorers discovered a Little Osage village and called it Ouazhigi after hearing the Osages call themselves Wah-Sha-She. Four more villages belonging to the Great Osages were also discovered. The Osages called the Europeans I'n-Shta-Heh (Heavy Eyebrows) because of their face hair. 1712: Osage warriors helped save Fort Detroit from hostile tribes. Afterward, the commandant, Etienne Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont, lived with the Osages and Missouria tribes for three years. During that time, he fathered a son by a woman of the Missouria tribe. He returned to France to receive a royal decoration for his service in the frontier. 1723: Etienne Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont, was returned to North America. He was to help control the Osages who often had conflicts with neighboring tribes. His first job was construction of a new fort, Fort Orleans. Bourgmont was able to negotiate an alliance of the Padouca, Missouria, Kansa, Oto, and Osage. 1725: Bourgmont and several chiefs arrived in Paris. They stayed for several months in France. 1730s and 1740s: Osage and Kansa attacked fur-traders and others to keep them from bringing guns to the Comanche and Plains tribes. 1755: The French asked the Osage to help them protect Fort Duquesne against the English. About 200 Osages joined the French alliance in an ambush of General Braddock's troops and the colonial militia as they marched toward the fort. Braddock was killed and Colonel George Washington was wounded. 1763: The Treaty of Paris gave the land west of the Mississippi River (including the Osage villages) to Spain. Spain called the new territory Louisiana. 1764: Auguste Chouteau began trading with the Osage. 1768: Spain assumed governing responsibilities of the Louisiana Territory. But France continued to exert an influence in governmental matters. 1770: Antonio de Ulloa, the Spanish lieutenant governor, took command of Upper Louisiana. He demanded that the Osage tribe stop warfare with neighboring Indians. The Osage ignored Spanish demands. Merchants in New Orleans looked the other way due to the profits earned from the Osage furs. 1770s: There were approximately 800 Osages. 1790: Spanish Governor of New Orleans, Hector Baron de Carondelet, imposed a sanction prohibiting all trade. 1792: Governor Carondelet declared war on the Osage. 1794: Osage raided Ste. Genevieve, a Spanish settlement. Several traveling traders were killed. 1795: After convincing the Spanish to give him a trading monopoly with the Osage, Auguste Chouteau built Fort Carondelet. His brother Pierre was a partner in the trading business. The Osage at Chouteau's urging did their raiding in the north, away from Spanish land. A Cherokee chief called The Bowl moved his people to the area around the Arkansas River and into Arkansas. They often hunted in Osage territory. This led to a war between the Cherokee and Osage. 1800: Carondelet gave the Chouteaus a continuing trading monopoly with the Osages for another four years. But Manuel Lisa and other Spanish traders protested. There were between 1500 and 1800 Osages. 1802: After a lengthy legal battle, the Chouteau monopoly was granted instead to Manuel Lisa. The Chouteaus then convinced a large group of Osage to move their villages out of the area covered by the new Lisa monopoly. The move was opposed by two chiefs, one of them being Pawhuska (White Hair). Pierre Chouteau convinced Cashesegra (Big Foot or Makes-Tracks-Far-Away), a minor chief, to move to Three Forks (where the Verdigris and Neosho Rivers flow into the Arkansas River). It was the influence of Claremore, though, that convinced about half of the Great Osage to relocate. The Three Forks area became Claremore's Town. (Afterward, Claremore was also known by the name, Town Maker.) Thus a distinct Arkansas band of the Osage was created 125 years after European intervention. 1803: Amid rumors that the Spanish were going to give the Louisiana Territory back to France, President Thomas Jefferson sent word to Napoleon suggesting shared control of the Mississippi Valley. Instead, Napoleon offered to sell the Louisiana Territory to the United States for $15 million (Louisiana Purchase). Included in the purchase was the land of the Osages. They roamed from the Missouri River to the Arkansas River. Soon, eastern Indians migrated or were forced west into Osage territory (including Cherokee, Choctaw, Creek, and Chickasaw). The newcomers aligned themselves with the enemies of the Osage. The Osage, under the leadership of Clermore, defended their land by raiding the camps of their enemies. Pierre Chouteau, newly appointed Indian agent, attempted to stop the raids by supporting Pawhuska as their leader. This did not work, however, as the Osages continued to follow Clermore. 1806: Lieutenant Wilkinson explored the Arkansas River into Oklahoma. He wrote about seeing Osage villages and hunting camps of the Cherokee and Choctaw. Wilkinson and his men spent Christmas in an Osage village near present-day Claremore. His journals are considered the first official records of Oklahoma. 1808: Pierre Chouteau convinced tribal chiefs to sign a treaty selling 200 acres of land in southern Missouri for $7,500 in cash and trade goods. This left the land open for settlement by Cherokees and non-Indians. 1811: Osage agent (at Fort Osage, Missouri), George C. Sibley, and fifteen Osages explored the Arkansas River, Salt Fork River, Cimarron River, and Chikaskia River. 1815: In November the U.S. wanted to buy some territory north of the Arkansas River (in present day Oklahoma and Arkansas). 1817: The Battle of Clermont Mound occurred. A group of Cherokee attacked an Osage village near present-day Clermore. Over one hundred Osages were massacred. Settlers asked the government for protection against the Indians. Fort Smith, the first fort in the area, was built where the Arkansas and Poteau Rivers came together. The Oklahoma and Arkansas border was patrolled resulting in less conflict between the Cherokee and Osage. 1818: Purchase of the land proposed in 1815 north of the Arkansas River was completed. Claremore was among the chiefs agreeing to the purchase. (Claremore's power had been much diminished due to a raid on his village resulting in the death of 80 and the capture of 100 women, children, and old men. Retaliation resulted in the return of the captives, but many warriors were killed.) 1822: Auguste and Pierre Chouteau convinced some of the Osages to move their villages further west to an area that is now Salina, Oklahoma. The Chouteaus had established a large trading post there. 1825: Osages remaining in Missouri agreed to give up their land in what is now Missouri, Arkansas, Kansas, and Oklahoma. The only land left to the Osages was a reservation, 50 miles wide and 125 miles long, in what is now Kansas. The southern border was the boundary between Oklahoma and Kansas. On the east were several square miles of land that were to be unoccupied and used as a divider between the reservation and the western bound pioneers and Indians. Claremore's bands and the Missouri bands (who had relocated in 1822) did not move to the reservation at this time. 1830s: Osages pretty much left alone. 1830: Congress passed the Indian Removal Act. This law called for the removal of the eastern Five Civilized Tribes from Alabama, Georgia, and Mississippi to Indian Territory. 1834: Osage living along the Arkansas and Neosho Rivers. Clermont, son of Claremore, was the principal chief of the Osage. 1839: A treaty promised to give (to the Osages) cattle, hogs, plows, axes, a blacksmith, a miller, and farming instructions. The Osage were discouraged from farming or ranching by their leaders. Osages who tried to farm and ranch were condemned by their peers. Often as not, the would-be rancher would end up slaughtering the livestock and giving it to the chiefs who would trade for goods (or throw elaborate feasts). Even Chief George White Hair was threatened with removal as chief when he took up farming. 1840s: Osages increased trading in buffalo hides and began trading horses and mules. 1847: Osages received $24,000 in credit for goods. They traded the goods to the Comanche for 1500 mules. The mules were traded to the original creditors for about $60,000 worth of goods. The Osage continued a profitable trade with the Comanche until 1853 when the Comanche started receiving goods as a result of a treaty with the U. S. 1847: Father John Schoenmakers established a mission on the Neosho River near present-day St. Paul, Kansas. The Sisters of Loreto opened a convent school for girls. They attempted to influence the Osage to farm and ranch by including instruction on farming and ranching in the schools. Late 1840s: Alcoholism had become a significant Osage problem. 1848: Agent reported that one-third of the horses obtained from the Comanche were traded for whiskey. 1854: The eastern uninhabited land of the Osage reservation was opened for settlement by non-Indians. Trespassing on reservation land became a problem. 1859: The Osage agent called on federal troops to removed settlers illegally "squatting" on the Osage reservation. 1861: Pressure to open reservation land to settlement decreased due to Civil War. The Osages participated in the war. Loyalty to one side or the other was based on each Osage's preference. The mission on the reservation became the site of a Civil War battle. Lieutenant Colonel James G. Blunt and the Sixth Kansas Cavalry defeated John Mathews and his pro-Southern whites and Osage warriors. John Mathews was killed during the battle. (Mathews was a trader who had lived among the Osages.) Oct. 2, 1861: After urging from Albert Pike, superintendent of Indian agencies for the Confederacy, 57 Osage chiefs and councilors signed a treaty with the Confederacy. Four Lodges, Little Bear, and Striking Axe were the only chiefs refusing to sign. The Confederacy promised protection in exchange for establishing a military post on the reservation and 500 warriors joining the Confederate Army. Civil War: The Osages, however, became discouraged by lack of local Confederate leadership and the close proximity of the Union forces during the war. Only the bands of Black Dog and Big Chief remained loyal to the Confederacy. They left for Creek and Cherokee territory until it was over-run by the Union. Then they returned to Kansas. Chief Little Bear and some of his Little Osage joined the Union forces and were members of the Ninth Kansas Infantry. Chief Four Lodges (Chetopa) and 200 warriors briefly joined the Second Regiment of the Union's Indian Brigade. They deserted, however, before a battle against the Confederate tribes in Indian Territory. May 1863: Twenty-two Confederates crossed into the Osage reservation. They wore civilian clothes. Their mission was to get Plains Indians to fight against the Union. The Osages were suspicious (they claimed to be Union) and tried to take them to the Union post at Fort Humboldt. The Confederates escaped, killing an Osage. Chiefs Hard Rope and Little Beaver (with about 200 warriors) pursued the Confederates. They caught up with them at the Verdigris River, killing, scalping, and beheading the Confederates. Afterward, they brought the Union soldiers to the place so the dead could be buried. 1865: Because of their link to the Confederacy, the Five Civilized Tribes were forced to sign new treaties. One item in the new treaty allowed other Indians to settle on their land. The government negotiated a separate treaty with the Osage. They were forced to give up a 30 by 50 mile piece of land on the eastern edge of the reservation. This further increased the problem of settlers "squatting" on the reservation. 1868: The Osage did not go on their spring buffalo hunt due to hostilities with the Cheyenne. The Cheyenne were angry with the Osage because some were scouts for Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer. That winter there was a severe shortage of food for the Osages. 1869: A commissioner from Washington, D.C., after visiting the reservation, reported on the conditions including the harassment by the Plains Indians and the "squatters." A new agent, Isaac T. Gibson, was appointed. Gibson, a Quaker, was able to gain the support of the Osages. He convinced the Osages to move to Indian Territory instead of fighting for their Kansas land. 1870s: Rosana Chouteau served as second chief of the Beaver band. She was the only known female to take part in tribal government until the middle part of the 20th century. She was related to a chief and was recognized for her encouragement to take part in government programs as a way for the Osage to survive in the white man's world. 1870: A council meeting was held. The Osages agreed to move to Indian Territory (removal treaty). They would buy land from the Cherokee using the money given them in the 1865 land-grab treaty. The government sold the Kansas reservation land for $1.25 per acre to settlers. Chief Joseph Paw-ne-no-pashe (Not-Afraid-of-Longhairs) demanded, as part of the treaty, that the Osage could hunt buffalo outside of the reservation, the new reservation would be protected from outsiders, the land would be owned by the tribe (not allotted to individual members). Eventually all these promises would be broken. 1871: Osages returned from buffalo hunt to their new reservation in northeastern Indian Territory. The 1,470,559 acres purchased from the Cherokee was marked in the west by the Arkansas River and to the east by the 96th meridian. They gave the Kansa tribe 102,400 acres on the northwest corner of the Osage reservation. 1872-1873: While most Osages went on the traditional buffalo hunt, some stayed behind and were encouraged to build fences and houses for future farm sites. 1873-1874: A drought and grasshopper invasion killed the Osage crops. 1873-1875: Some Osages planted fruit orchards. Over 200 houses were built. The government gave furnishings to Osages living in houses. A sawmill, gristmill, commissary, physician's office, church, gun shop, barns, smithies, harness shops, and wagon shops were built near present-day Pawhuska. 1874: Some of the Osage did not settle on their new reservation until 1874. 1875: The buffalo herds disappeared. In addition to a large vegetable crop, the Osage farmers produced 50,000 bushels of corn and 20,000 bushels of wheat. Nearly all the farms belonged to mixed bloods and Osages who had intermarried, or to full bloods who had purchased farms from settlers living near the Kansas border. The value of the Osage land for grazing was completely overlooked. 1876: Cyrus Beede replaced Isaac Gibson as the Osage agent. Recognizing the many problems of the Osage, Beede appointed a five man Osage council to carry on all business affairs of the tribe. A governor and chief counselor would also be elected. The council was unable to solve the problem of hunger on the reservation, however. 1877: Winter was particularly severe. Osages traded blankets to the Kansas settlers for food and often walked many miles to the agency for food because their horses were also starving and too weak to carry the Osages. They demanded to be paid in money instead of rations. But the government refused. 1878: The first elected governor of the Osage tribe was Paw-ne-no-pashe. Wah-ti-an-kah was elected chief counselor. Laban J. Miles replaced Beede as agent. 1879: The Osage council went to Washington, D.C., to protest their treatment and ask for money instead of rations. The compromise they struck provided that all annuities except beef rations would be paid in cash. Every Osage would receive $160 per year. Late 1870s: The Osages leased some of its pasture land to Texas cattle herders. 1881: At a grand council meeting, James Bigheart was selected to lead a committee that would draw up a constitution for the Osage Nation. 1882: The first election for the Osage National Council was held. Joseph Paw-ne-no-pashe was elected principal chief. Assistant Chief was Strike Axe. Among those chosen to serve on the council were James Bigheart, Saucy Chief, and Claremore. In spite of the approval of the local agent, the Indian Office would not recognize the new Osage Nation government. 1889: A law was passed that stated that communal ownership of Indian land could not be changed to individual (allotted) ownership without permission of the tribe. 1890s: Pressure to divide Indian land into allotments was exerted from Washington, D.C. Many Osages joined the Native American Church. Among them was Fred Lookout. 1893: Washington representatives met with the Osage at Pawhuska to discuss allotment. The specially appointed Osage committee rejected allotment. But the Washington representatives managed to get the meetings open to all the Osages. This brought about a favorable response to allotment from the mixed bloods and some of the full bloods. 1893: Fire destroyed National Council building containing tribal and family documents. This opened the door to fraudulent listing on the initial Osage Roll. 1894: Agent H. B. Freeman estimated there were 1000-5000 non-Indians living on the Osage Reservation. 1894: Oil was discovered on the Osage Reservation. 1896: Henry Foster was granted exclusive rights to explore and harvest oil and gas from Osage land. The price was 10 percent of petroleum sales and $50 per well. April 1, 1900: The U. S. government ended the Osage's constitutional government. A council of 15 Osage men was established to do business, but only under the direction of the commissioner of Indian affairs. In spite of this, the Osages continued to resist allotment. 1904: Non-Indian population on the Osage Reservation was estimated at 10,000 to 15,000. There were 155 oil wells and 18 gas wells on the reservation. There was a pipeline connecting the reservation with the Standard Oil Refinery at Neodesha, Kansas. 1906: The government broke up the reservation into individual allotments. But they were the last Indians to give up their reservation in Indian Territory and Oklahoma Territory. The Osage Allotment Act was passed by Congress on June 28, 1906. All Osages enrolled before January 1, 1906 and those who enrolled by July 1, 1907, would receive an equal share (headright) of the Osage land and resources. Children of Osage women and non-Osage men would be included in the roll. But children of non-Osage women and Osage men would not be included. As part of the Act, the subsurface minerals would continue to be owned by the tribe instead of individuals. A constitutional convention was held to plan the government for the new state of Oklahoma. Fifty-five delegates attended from Oklahoma Territory, 55 from Indian Territory, and 2 delegates from the Osage Nation. 1907: Oklahoma became a state. The Kansa Reservation became part of Kay County. The Osage Reservation became Osage County. Osages listed on the closed roll totaled 2,229 (926 full-bloods, 1,303 mixed-bloods). 1908: The title "agent" was changed to superintendent. Fred Lookout was elected as assistant principal chief for two years. 1914: Fred Lookout ran for and was elected principal chief. 1915: Under direction of Indian Commissioner Cato Sells, quarterly allotment checks were mailed directly to Osages. Those without a mailing address picked their payments up in Pawhuska, Gray Horse, or Hominy. 1916: J. George Wright was the superintendent of the agency. Chief Fred Lookout once again was elected as principal chief. Colonel Walters was hired by the tribe to auction oil leases. He was paid $10 per day which was much less than his usual $50-100 per auction. The lease auctions were held under the "million dollar elm" located on Agency Hill in Pawhuska. If weather was bad, they would hold them in the Kihekah Theater. Both wildcatters and major oil companies bid on the oil and gas leases. Bidders included Bill Skelly, E. W. Marland, Frank Phillips, G. F. Getty, and J. Paul Getty. 1917: Chief Lookout, Assistant Chief Paul Red Eagle, and Councilman Harry Bayliss favored a resolution that would allow the children of allottees born after July 1, 1907, to inherit the headrights. Councilman Wah-sho-shah opposed the resolution fearing that it would lead to fraudulent claims as had happened in 1906. Although the resolution was intended to solve the problem between the Osage have and have-nots, it did not pass. World War I (1914-1919): U. S. declared War against Germany on April 6, 1917. About 120 full-bloods and many mixed-bloods joined the armed services. Many Osages belonged to National Guard Company E, known as the Millionaire Company because of its wealthy Osage, Creek and Choctaw members. 1919: Angela Gorman, an opera singer, was honored by the Osage tribe. She was given the Osage name, Eagle Maiden, at a ceremony presided over by Chief Fred Lookout. 1920s: Many Osages spent freely and the newspapers reported upon the spending sprees. Alcoholism was the Osage's greatest health problem even through Prohibition. The Osages were taken advantage of, charged extra money for purchases and services, cheated out of their land, and even murdered for their headrights. During the Osage Reign of Terror, William K. Hale hired the killings of several Osages over a period of years. Hale, who married a full-blood Osage (Mollie Kyle), arranged the deaths of related Osages so that he would eventually own all their headrights. The Reign of Terror came to a head in 1921 with the deaths of Anna Brown, Lizzie Q, and Henry Roan. The FBI entered the investigation with an undercover operation. Hale was finally convicted in 1929. Membership in the Native American Church began its decline. Women had gained social, economic, and political power. Many divorced and widowed women served as the head of household and supported their family without the assistance of male members. 1922: Corine and Leona Girard asked the Bureau of Indian Affairs for help in obtaining voting rights for Osage female allottees. The Osage council refused to allow women to vote. 1923: More than 100 headright checks were mailed to Osages living outside of Oklahoma. Most had migrated to Kansas, Missouri, Arkansas and California. Some had simply moved away from the reservation to other areas of Oklahoma. Still others left the country to places like Mexico, China, Japan, and France. 1924: President Calvin Coolidge recognized the Osage for their service on the battlefield as well as their charitable contributions to Red Cross and purchase of War Bonds. Chief Fred Lookout ran for and was elected principal chief. He eventually was elected to 32 consecutive years in office. February 1925: In response to the Osage Reign of Terror murders, the federal government passed legislation prohiting inheritance of head rights to anyone causing the death of an Osage. The same law also limited inheritance of head rights to Osages who were at least half-blood. Those inheriting who were less than half-blood were forced to sell their headright back to the tribe. 1925: Oil and gas royalties peaked at $13,200 per year per headright. If everyone in a family of 5 had a headright, the family income from royalties for the year would have been $66,000. The superintendent for the Osage earned $3000 for the year. Maria Tallchief, noted ballerina, was born in Fairfax, Oklahoma. 1926: At invitation by the Osage, the Society of American Indians met at Pawhuska. The Osages arranged and paid for many festivities including food, parades, several kind of games, and a beauty contest. Amidst the Osage Reign of Terror murder trials, Chief Bacon Rind said, "There are men amongst the whites, honest men, but they are mighty scarce-mighty few." 1927: The Osage once again hosted the Society of American Indian convention at Pawhuska. A mixed-blood Osage was crowned queen of the beauty contest. 1928: Walters had auctioned off leases worth $157 million by 1928. 1929: The stock market declined and the Depression began. 1930s: Osages continued to be cheated and encouraged to spend until they were broke. Robbery of the Osage increased during this time, especially at the camps set up in Hominy, Gray Horse, and Pawhuska. Three lawmen were hired by the Osages to assist the one federal officer assigned to Osage County. Alcoholism continued to be a major problem. Drugs became a new problem for the Osages. A 1930 drug bust in Osage County was the largest in state history until after World War II. Between 1930 and 1934, 42 Osage deaths were drug or alcohol related (even though Prohibition existed during much of this time). The severe draught of the 1930s effected Osage County as it did the rest of Oklahoma, leading to a further reduction in allotment income. During this time, two leaders emerged: Chief Fred Lookout and John Joseph Mathews. 1930: Henry Pratt (Nopawalla) and George Wright urged Osages to become educated in order to survive the Great Depression and dealings with the white man. 1932: Due to falling oil prices and government regulation of oil and gas production, the Osage headright payment decreased to $585 for the year. The average for the 1930s was $1500 per year. 1933: Prohibition was repealed. In April, John Collier was appointed commissioner of Indian Affairs. Collier was to develop a program developing work skills and bringing jobs to the nation's tribes. His plan called for renewing tribal governments and traditional culture. The economic part of his plan was similar to the non-Indian New Deal program. The plan, initially named the Wheeler-Howard Bill, was enacted as the Indian Reorganization Act (IRA). In the plan, it specified that any Indian tribe would have to vote for the plan in order to take advantage of it. 1934: The Osage Council asked Congress to enact special legislation making the sale of alcohol in Osage County illegal. Congress declined. Chief Fred Lookout worked with full-blood and mixed-blood Osages to redefine the meaning of full-blood to include some mixed-blood Osages. This helped him win the election for principal chief in 1934. John Joseph Mathews was elected to the Osage council. Lookout and Mathews both supported the Indian Reorganization Act, but many Indians were suspicious of the legislation; and the Oklahoma tribes were not included in the Act when it was signed into law in 1934. 1935: Less than one-third of the original allotted acres was owned by Osages. 1936: Oklahoma Indians were included in a program, similar to the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act, called the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act. But the Osage were excluded from the act even though they voted in favor of it. Members of the non-Indian community in Osage County lobbied against including the Osages in the act. The Osage became the only Indian group within the U.S. (excluding Alaska) who were left out of the Indian New Deal. The Osage were able to participate in some relief through government grants and additional oil and gas royalties. They created an agricultural extension service, a health clinic, and a social services office. 1938: The first tribally owned and administered museum was dedicated. The museum was developed from a grant written by John Joseph Mathews. A group of women submitted a petition to the council requesting the right to vote. The Osage Council was against giving women the right to vote. 1939: Over one million acres of oil rich Osage land was still unleased. Production of existing wells was poor due to lack of demand. In a census taken in 1939, more than one-third of the enrolled Osages got no money at all from the tribal sources. Almost another third got only a fraction of their headright income. The remaining Osages were among the original allottees who did receive their full headright shares. 1941: The Osage Council gave women the right to vote. But it would be ten years before a woman was nominated to serve on the council. The first woman was elected in 1976. December 7, 1941: The Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, assuring the United States inclusion in World War II. Within hours of the bombing, the Osage war drums called upon the Osage to fight the enemy. World War II (1942-1945): Chief Fred Lookout presided over ceremonies giving traditional warrior names to Osage service men and women. Among the Osages in uniform was Clarence L. Tinker who became a major general in the army air corps. General Tinker was killed in 1942 in an airplane crash. He received the Distinguished Service Medal and Tinker Field in Oklahoma City was named for him. More than 200 Osages worked in Tulsa airplane factories during the war. In addition to participating in bond sales, scrap metal collection, bandage rolling, and other wartime civilian activities, the Osage used tribal funds to pay for a training plane for the air corps. 1943: Superintendent Theodore Hall reported that 381 Osage were in the military. 1956: Chief Fred Lookout died in office. 1957: In the 1906 allotment act, the Osage Council was to continue until January 1, 1959. Congress enacted a bill to extend the council until January 1, 1984. Eventually the deadline date was removed. 1960s: Osages became dissatisfied with their government. Only persons owning headrights were allowed to participate. This allowed for a great many young Osages who could not participate. Headright income was high through the mid-sixties. By the end of the 1960s, the headright income had declined due to the changing oil market and mineral discoveries outside of the United States. 1964: A group of both young unalloted Osage and a group of full-blood Osages formed an alliance called the Osage Nation Organization. Requirements for membership were: over 21, at least ¼ Osage. They believed the original Osage tribe ceased to exist in 1900 when the government abolished the Osage constitution. Also the exclusion of the Osage from the Indian New Deal was cited. They also referred to the "no-bloods" who fraudulently claimed enrolled as Osages in 1907 and received headrights. The Osage Nation Organization worked to increase the number of their supporters who were allowed to vote and to change the council to Osages with ¼ Osage blood. Congress passed a bill removing time limits from the Osage rights to its mineral reserves. 1965: The Osage Nation Organization had 250 members. 1970s: Dissatisfaction with the Osage government continued. In early 1970s, the Osage Nation Organization membership was 800. 1971: A federal commission recommended changes in the council to improve representation of all Osages. No substantial changes were made in the council. 1973: Due to the Middle East embargo of oil, the Osage oil production increased. Headright income was $3000 per year in 1973. 1976: Camille Pangburn became the first woman elected to the Osage Council. 1977: Due to increased oil production and prices, Osage headright income was almost $12000 per year. 1980: Less than 150 active Osage Peyotists (Native American Church) existed. The continuing oil boom contributed to increases in Osage allotments. In 1980, allotments reached more than $26,000 per year. 1983: The Middle East embargo ended, causing Osage oil income to drop. The Osage allotment in 1983 dropped to about $13000 and continued dropping throughout later years. Sources: Gibson, Arrell M. 1972. Harlow's Oklahoma History, Sixth Edition. Norman, Oklahoma: Harlow Publishing Corporation. Wilson, Terry P. 1988. Indians of North America. New York: Chelsea House Publishers.